Chapter II

Review of Related Literature

This chapter states some theories, principles, facts, and certain studies that will serve as a basis of the research process. Relevant and Fundamental information can be gathered and obtains in this chapter to provide a foundation for the outcome of this research.

A. Research Literature

Abracia pointed that people have invented new materials to take place or improve those found in nature to have more food and much better preparation of that food.

Many household products contain lye, the chemical sodium hydroxide. Lye is a caustic, alkaline chemical, which means it dissolves sticky substances like fat, and has a high degree of reactivity with other materials. Lye, in a flake, granular, or liquid form, is very dangerous and can cause damage to surfaces and people.

Lye is created out of a chemical reaction between soda, known as sodium carbonate, and calcium hydroxide, or lime. In raw form, it's made into solid flakes, chips, or grains. Chemical suppliers provide lye to manufacturers to make a wide variety of products, such as fabric, paper, personal soap, laundry detergent, pool-cleaning supplies, metal polishers, and drain de-cloggers. Since households utilize so many poisonous products, they must take care to keep cleaners out of the reach of children and only use them as directed. For instance, carefully follow the directions to clean a sterling silver gravy boat with lye-based polish, because even the fumes can be dangerous. Never uses products like drain de-clogger or paint stripper without enough air circulation.

Caustic lye products pose other dangers to surfaces. They can dissolve substances to your advantage, like hair clogs in a shower drain, as well as to your detriment, such as the adjacent shower curtain. In fact, lye can damage and corrode paint, metal, cloth, plastic, and especially skin. Lye can be so reactive that, in its solid form, it should be kept away from metals, such as aluminum, and the open air. It's usually non-combustible when dry, but could ignite when mixed with water and cause a fire.

Before the modern manufacture of lye, people were able to make it out of raw materials. For thousands of years, people have used lye for soap making and tanning hides. They burned certain hardwoods at a very high temperature to make white, not gray, ashes. Apple trees, oak, and seaweed kelp make ideal fuels. Then water, mixed with a bit of baking soda, penetrates the ashes and removes the lye they contain. When the ashes are filtered out, the water holds enough lye to dissolve fat left on animal furs, or to mix with other ingredients to make strong body soap.
Amaranthus, collectively known as amaranth or pigweed, is a cosmopolitan genus of herbs. Approximately 60 species are presently recognized, with inflorescences and foliage ranging from purple and red to gold. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus Celosia.

Although several species are often considered weeds, people around the world value amaranths as leaf vegetables, cereals and ornamentals.

The word comes from the Greek amarantos (Αμάρανθος or Αμάραντος) the "one that does not wither", or the never-fading (flower).

Amaranthus shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species. Although the family (Amaranthaceae) is distinctive, the genus has few distinguishing characters among the 70 species included.[1] This complicates taxonomy and Amaranthus has generally been considered among systematists as a “difficult” genus.[2]

Formerly, Sauer (1955) classified the genus into 2 sub-genera, differentiating only between monoecious and dioecious species: Acnida (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and Amaranthus. [2] Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group.

Currently, Amaranthus includes 3 recognized sub-genera and 70 species, although species numbers are questionable due to hybridization and species concepts.[3] Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification.[1] A modified infrageneric classification of Amaranthus was published by Mosyakin & Robertson (1996) and includes 3 subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus and Albersia. The taxonomy is further differentiated by sections within each of the sub-genera.[4]

In some cultures it was known as a mythical flower that never fades.
Amaranth, or Amarant (from the Greek amarantos, unwithering), a name chiefly used in poetry, and applied to Amaranth and other plants which, from not soon fading, typified immortality.
Aesop's Fables (6th century BC) compares the Rose to the Amaranth to illustrate the difference in fleeting and everlasting beauty.

A Rose and an Amaranth blossomed side by side in a garden,
and the Amaranth said to her neighbour,
"How I envy you your beauty and your sweet scent!
No wonder you are such a universal favourite."
But the Rose replied with a shade of sadness in her voice,
"Ah, my dear friend, I bloom but for a time:
my petals soon wither and fall, and then I die.
But your flowers never fade, even if they are cut;
for they are everlasting."
Thus, in John Milton's Paradise Lost (1667), iii. 353:
"Immortal amarant, a flower which once
In paradise, fast by the tree of life,
Began to bloom; but soon for man's offence
To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows,
And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life,
And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven
Rolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream:
With these that never fade the spirits elect
Bind their resplendent locks."
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, in Work without Hope (1825), also references the herb, likely referencing Milton's earlier work. (ll 7-10 excerpted):
Yet well I ken the banks where Amaranths blow,
Have traced the fount whence streams of nectar flow.
Bloom, O ye Amaranths! bloom for whom ye may,
For me ye bloom not! Glide, rich streams, away!

The original spelling is amarant; the more common spelling amaranth seems to have come from a folk etymology assuming that the final syllable derives from the Greek word anthos ("flower"), common in botanical names.

In ancient Greece the amaranth (also called chrusanthemon and elichrusos) was sacred to Ephesian Artemis. It was supposed to have special healing properties, and as a symbol of immortality was used to decorate images of the gods and tombs. In legend, Amarynthus (a form of Amarantus) was a hunter of Artemis and king of Euboea; in a village of Amarynthus, of which he was the eponymous hero, there was a famous temple of Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia (Strabo x. 448; Pausan. i. 31, p. 5). It was also widely used by the Chinese for its healing chemicals, curing illnesses such as infections, rashes, and migraines. The "Amarantos" is the name a several-century-old popular Greek folk song:

Look at the amaranth:
on tall mountains it grows,
on the very stones and rocks
and places inaccessible.

Finnish symphonic metal band Nightwish featured a song titled Amaranth on their 2007 album Dark Passion Play.
The Swedish doom/gothic band Draconian (band) have released a song called The Amaranth, where the plant is used as a symbol for the dark side of Venus.
Orson Scott Card's novel Speaker for the Dead features a plant called amaranth native to the planet Lusitania, where the majority of the story takes place.

investigatory project ( CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION :: DEFINITION OF TERMS )

F. Definition of Terms

The operational terms that had been used in our study, are the following:

Lye . It is manufactured from calcium hydroxide and sodium carbonate. It is a caustic solution and a type of very strong alkali.

Pigweed/uray plant. s.i. Amaranthus Spinosus. It’s a stout, erect, smooth branched herb, 0.4 to 1 m high.

Aristae. A bristle like part or appendage, such as the awn of grains and grasses or the process near the tip of the antenna of certain flies.

Kulitis plant. s.i. Amaranthus Viridis. An erect, smooth, branched unarmed herb, 30-60 cm high.

Axillary. Refers to the location of a node on a plant stem; more precisely, to the apical angle between a leaf and the stem above it.

Solvation. Commonly called dissolution, is the process of attraction and association of molecules of a solvent with molecules or ions of a solute

Glabrous. It is an adjective used to describe a morphological feature as smooth, glossy, having no hair or bristles or glaucousness.

Petiole. It is the stalk by which a leaf is attached to a stem. Also called leafstalk.
Lanceolate. Lance like of a leaf, about four times as long as it is broad, broadest in the lower half and tapering towards the tip.

Utricle. A small bladder, a membranous bladder-like sac enclosing an ovary or fruit.

Systematists. Iologists who study the evolution, relationships, and classification of living
organisms. The science of systematics is thus the most comprehensive of biological disciplines, including the fields of paleontology, ecology, behavior, anatomy, physiology, and development. The subdiscipline of taxonomy, for naming and classifying specimens, is part of systematics.

Monoecious. Having separate male and female reproductive units (flowers, conifer cones, or functionally equivalent structures) on the same plant; from Greek for "one household".
Dioecious. Having unisexual reproductive units with male and female plants.

investigatory project ( CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION :: ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY )

E. Organization of the Study

This research paper is divided into 6 chapters namely the Introduction; Review of Related Literature; Methodology; Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data; and Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendation

In the 1st Chapter, the history how lye came to be was mentioned along, researchers hypothesis, the use of pigweed plant were also mentioned, In the Review of Related Literature in Chapter II, the researchers introduced the theories principles and ideas that then formulate their own hypothesis. Chapter III shows how the researchers are to conduct the experimentation and the completion of the product, exact procedures were given along with the research tool and research method

Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data shows the results of the experiment through the observation form. All data collected from the forms returned by the observers were then presented in tabular format making it easier to reach a conclusion based on the given results.
Summary conclusion and recommendation constitutes the 5th and final chapter. Everything that has been done is recounted in a nutshell and the answer whether the hypothesis is rejected or accepted is revealed further improvements and research that can be done is given by the researchers in this chapter also.

investigatory project ( CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION :: SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY )

D. Significance of the Study

Researchers. This will help them improve their creativity in choosing their own ingredients and methods needed in making the study.

Consumers. This will help them to make home made lye so that their expenses would be lessened.

Lye Manufacturer. This study will help the manufacturer to use cheap and common ingredients. It will also enhance the manufacturer to be ingenious in using cheap prize ingredients.

investigatory project ( CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION :: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM )

C. Statement of the Problem
This study determined the effectivity and practicality of pigweed plant in making a home made lye. Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:
1. What are the qualities of a good pigweed plant, in terms of?


a. Stem
b. Leaves
c. Flowers
d. Fruits utricles



2. Is there difference between lye made out of pigweed plant and commercialize lye, in terms of:



a. color
b. odor
c. effectiveness as food additive

investigatory project ( CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION :: OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY )

B. Objective of the Study

Generally, the study aims to produce lye from pigweed (Amaranthus Spinosus ). Our specific objectives in conducting this study are:

1. to know what are the other uses of pigweed

2. to enhance our skills to produce new substance.

3. to determine that there would be other substance or material to be used in the absence of commercial sodium hydroxide or lye, a food additive.

investigatory project ( CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION )

Chapter I
Introduction

There are so many materials that we can find in the environment. Man has added many more materials to those that are found in nature. People have invented and produced new material to take the place or improve them.
People want to have a long healthy life; therefore, they need a healthful environment. There is a need for more food and a much better preparation of that food.
Technology has allowed people to invent new materials that will be more effective and economical. Scientists and manufacturers of products have discovered that chemicals can be used to produce materials that are useful in the life of every individual.

A. Background of the Study
Pigweed, scientific name Amaranthus Spinosus or uray is a family of flowering plants in the order of Caryophyllates about 50 to 800 species herbs with a few shrubs native to the Philippines. It has a stout, erect, smooth, branch herb, 0.4 to 1 m high, stems with slender auxiliary spines. The presence of spines differentiates it from kulitis (Amaranthus Viridis) or amaranth. The leaves are glabrous, long-petiole, oblong to oblong ovate, or elliptic-lanciolate, 4 to 10 cm long, obtuse, alternate. The flowers are very numerous, stalk less, green or greening-white, axillary clusters and in elongated terminal axillary spikes sepals 5 or 1-3 ovate to linear, often aristae. Petals are scrawls bracts, bristle pointed and as long as the sepals or longer. Seeds are minute, black, and shining.
Lye is a corrosive alkaline substance, specifically, sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Previously, lye was among the many different alkalis leached from hardwood ashes.
In modern day, lye is commercially manufactured using a membrane cell method, which is an improvement from the previous diaphragm cell methods of Castner-Kellner, Gibbs, and Nelson.

investigatory project ( ACKNOWLEDGEMENT )

Acknowledgement

The researchers wish to extend their sincerest appreciation to the following people who helped make this research. They are the people who helped and contributed much for the success of this endeavor.
To God, for his gift of wisdom and understanding to the researchers and for answering their prayers in their times of need.
To their Chemistry teacher, Mr. Jonathan Digma for teaching them the fundamental of research and investigatory writing and for showing a great deal of patience through at times they tend to be naughty.
To their parents and family members, for the unending love and support that they gave to the researchers.
To the observer/respondents, for their integrity and cooperation.
And lastly, to all those who were a part of this work, the researchers would like to extend their deepest thanks.


Raphael Arche Sandino Buscayno
Lei Janine Demillo
Kimberly Jitsukawa
Gerard Marzel Mendoza
Edward Daniel Roberto

investigatory project ( TABLE OF CONTENTS )

Table of Contents

Abstract............................................................................................................. i

Acknowledgement............................................................................................ ii

Table of Contents.............................................................................................. iii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION............................................................ 1
A. Background of the study............................................. 1
B. Objective of the Study................................................. 2
C. Statement of the Problem.......................................... 2
D. Significance of the Study........................................... 3
E. Organization of the Study.......................................... 3
F. Definition of Terms.................................................... 4

CHAPTER II REWIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE................. 6
A. Research Literature.................................................... 6

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY....................................................... 12
A. Research Design.......................................................... 12
B. Data Collection Data.................................................... 12
C. Research Instrument.................................................. 15
D. Statistical Technique...................................................... 15

CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................. 16

CHAPTE V SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION 21
A. Summary of Findings................................................ 21
B. Conclusion....................................................................... 22
C. Recommendation........................................................... 23

BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................................. 24
APPENDICES................................................................................................... 25

investigatory project ( CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION)

Chapter IV
Presentation, Interpretation, and Analysis of Data

Problem #1 What are the qualities that pigweed plant must posses in order to make a quality product in terms of its:
a. Stem
b. Leaves
c. Flowers
d. Fruits utricles
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rating
Frequency
Percentage
Agree
10
100 %
Disagree
0
0%
TOTAL
10
100%
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table.1.1 The stem of the pigweed plant is with axillary spines.

Table 1.1 show that 100 % or 10 out of 10 observers agree that the stem of pigweed plant is with slender axillary spines.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rating
Frequency
Percentage
Agree
10
100%
Disagree
0
0
TOTAL
10
100%
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Table 1.2 The leavesof the pigweed plant is glabrous, alternate, oblong to oblong, ovate long-petioled or elliptic-lanceolate,4 to 10 cm long, obtuse, which are the characteristics of a good pigweed.


Table 1.2 shows that 100 % or 10 out of 10 observers stated that the leaves of pigweed is glabrous, alternate, oblong to oblong, ovate long-petioled or elliptic-lanceolate,4 to 10 cm long, obtuse, which are the characteristics of a good pigweed.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rating
Frequency
Percentage
Agree
10
100%
Disagree
0
0
TOTAL
10
100%
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------




Table 1.3 The flower is very numerous, stalk less, green or greening-white, about 1 mm long and born in dense.

Table 1.3 show that 100 % or 10 out of 10 observers agree that the flower of the pigweed plant used in the experiment is Very numerous, stalk less, green or greening-white, about 1 mm long and born in dense.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rating
Frequency
Percentage
Agree
10
100 %
Disagree

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TOTAL
10
100%
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 1.4 The fruit utricle is wrinkled and nearly as long as the sepals

Table 1.4 shows that 100 % or 10 out of 10 observers stated that the fruit utricle of pigweed plant used in the experiment is wrinkled and nearly as long as the sepals

Problem # 2 Is there difference between lye made out of uray plant and commercializes lye, in terms of:
a. color
b. odor
c. taste

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Commercialized Lye
Lye from Pigweed Plant
Rating
Frequency
Percentage
Frequency
Percentage
Very light
0
0%
0
0%
Moderately light
0
0%
1
10%
Average
10
100%
8
80%
Moderately dark
0
0%
1
10%
Very dark
0
0%
0
0%
TOTAL
10
100%
10
100%
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 2.1Color of Commercialized Lye & Lye from Pigweed Plant

Table 2.1 shows that 100 % or 10 out of 10 observers stated that the color of commercialized lye was average, on the other hand 80 % or 8 out 10 rated the lye from pigweed plant as average ,meanwhile 10 % or 1out of 10 observer said that lye from pigweed was moderately dark and another 10 % or 1 out of 10 observer told that the lye from pigweed was moderately light

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Commercialized Lye
Lye from Pigweed Plant
Rating
Frequency
Percentage
Frequency
Percentage
Pleasant
10
100%
9
90%
Unpleasant
0
0%
1
10%
Odorless
0
0%
0
0%
TOTAL
10
100%
10
100%
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 2.2 Odor of Commercialized Lye & Lye from Pigweed Plant

Table 2.2 shows that 100 % or 10 out of 10 observers stated that the odor of commercialized lye was pleasant, on the other hand 90 % or 9 out 10 rated the lye from pigweed plant as pleasant ,meanwhile 10 % or 1out of 10 observer said that lye from pigweed was unpleasnt in odor.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Commercialized Lye
Lye from Pigweed Plant
Rating
Frequency
Percentage
Frequency
Percentage
Effective as Food Additive
9
90%
9
90%
Ineffective as Food Additive
1
10%
1
10%
TOTAL
10
100%
10
100%
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Table 2.3 Effectiveness as Food Additive of Commercialized Lye & Lye from Pigweed Plant

Table 2.3 shows that 90 % or 90 out of 10 observers stated that the commercialized lye is effective as food additive and 10 % or 1 out 10 rated that commercialized lye is ineffective as food additive. Meanwhile 90 % or 90 out of 10 observers stated that the lye from pigweed plant is effective as food additive and 10 % or 1 out 10 rated that lye from pigweed plant is ineffective as food additive.

investigatory project ( PROCEDURE )

C. Procedure

First, the researches gathered pigweed plant. Then, they spread cardboard matting on the ground and the plant samples were placed on them in thin piles so that it can be dried easily. The pigweed or uray plants were dried under the sun or thirty days more until they are ready for burning. They burned the dried plants at a high temperature. The fire should reduce the wood to white ash. After the fire has cooled, they collected the white ash in a sealed container to keep it dry and contaminated. They collected rain water or stream water. This water is less contaminated and is the ideal source for traditional lye making. The proper water is essential to the process. They measure the uray’s ash using measuring cup and a beaker. They followed the method of preparation that the quantity of ash and water must be in equal proportion. They poured a hot water over the ash. They slowly added cool water, until the water dripped from the container. Using the stirring rod, the stirred the ash until it mixed with water. The mixture is called calcium and sodium carbonate. With the use of another container the mixtures was strained using a white clean cloth for three hours. Then they drained out again using oslo/filter paper into a safe container. The filtered brownish water is the sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or lye which will be used as food additive. To assure that the solution last longer, they boiled it again for half an hour. Then they let it cooled ready to put in the bottle. They measured the desired contents of the bottle, using graduated cylinder and beaker.

investigatory project ( RESULTS AND DISCUSSION )

Results and Discussion

A. Findings

The result of the project revealed that pigweed or uray plant can be a source of sodium hydroxide or lye limited only as food additive to be used in preparing some native dishes like suman, kutsinta, rice cakes, etc. it can also be used to ass color to other foods as well as delicious smell which be appetizing to all.
Documentation on findings was pointed out using graph. This was shown in the list of table.

B. Analysis of Data

For better results, one should follow the method of preparation or suggested quantities of ash and water. This was shown in the list of table.

Conclusions

The author, therefore conclude that plants such as weeds can also be useful if they were given importance and value.
Sodium hydroxide or lye from pigweed can be used as food additive especially in preparing some nature dishes like suman, kutsinta, and rice cakes. It is also used in coloring in preparation of some foods.
They also conclude that people can prepare foods without commercial sodium hydroxide or lye but using the available plant in the surroundings which are pure and natural.

Recommendations

The author therefore recommended that plants such as weeds can also be useful if they were given importance and value.
It is further recommended that proper care and management are to be employed and faithfully observed throughout the period of the study to ensure safety since the plant samples were thorny and burning them to produce new materials can cause choking and burns.
Using Sodium Hydroxide or lye from pigweed plant is recommended in preparation of some foods because it is pure and natural.

*Table 2 showed that there were five respondents or persons who actually tasted the finished product, like suman, kutsinta, nad rice cakes. Three native delicacies were actually cooked using the lye from Pigweed or uray plant. Teachers, Administrators were satisfied thus percentage of approval is 95 %, which is equivalent to outstanding, their parents and parish priest decided on their consensus to rate the finished product 90 % which is also equivalent to outstanding. It is already a common knowledge among young and old alike the children do not like very much native foods like suman, kutsinta and rice cakes so in this regard they rated the finished product to 80% but it is also a very satisfactory rating. With these findings, we can justify that lye from pigweed plant can seved its sole purpose as a food additive.

investigatory project ( ABSTRACT)

ABSTRACT

Pigweed plant, scientific name Amarantus Spinosus, commonly known as “uray” a stout, erect, smooth, branched herb, 0.4 to 1 m high, stems with slender axillaries spines. The presence of spines differentiates it from kulitis (Amaranthus viridis). It was gathered at the roadsides where it was pulled out as weeds.
Knowing some changes in the states of matter learned in Chemistry, pigweed was dried under the sun for one month. After it has been dried, it was burned until it became ash or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) Water was added to the ash to produce calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide precipitation. This process is known as lime soda softening. Straining and filtration followed. Filtered liquid is the Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) or lye, “lihiya in Filipino”.
Lye is a strong caustic alkaline solution of potassium or sodium salts, obtained by leaching wood ashes. Its chemical name is Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH). As a chemical, it has plenty of uses. Its powder destroys waste by its ability to eat organic material. It is used as food additive which enhance the colors and tastes of foods especially in some native delicacies.
The results revealed that pigweed plant can be a source of sodium hydroxide which can be used as food additive available plant in the surroundings. It can really be a source of income if one thinks that lye is easy to prepare and if one wants to save money, of course, if proper procedures are to be followed every time it will be prepared.

survey form sample (for investigatory project)

Rogationist College
High School Department
S. Y. 2007 – 2008


We Lei Demillo, Kim Jitsukawa, Gerard Mendoza, Edward Roberto, Raphael Buscayno, of III-St. Joseph, are currently conducting a research entitled “POTASSIUM OR SODIUM HYDROXIDE (LYE) FROM URAY PLANT (PIGWEED)”. In line with this, we are gathering data through this questionnaire as part of the requirements in chemistry.

Name(optional): ______________________
Yr.§ion : ______________________

(please put check mark on your answer)
Legend: a- agree
b- disagree


1. Do you agree that lye (sodium hydroxide) can be use as food additive to be used in preparing some native dishes like kutsinta?
A B
( ) ( )
2. Do you agree that lye can be used as the add color to other foods? (a) (b)
3. Do you agree that plants such as weeds can also be useful if they wise given importance and value?
(a) (b)
4. Do you agree that added with sodium hydroxide/ lye has a delicious taste which can be appetizing?
(a) (b)
5. Do you agree that uray plant/ pigweed can be a source of sodium potassium hydroxide or lye, “lihiya” in Filipino?
(a) (b)
6. Do you agree that people can prepare foods without commercial sodium hydroxide or lye but using the available plant in the surroundings?
(a) (b)

survey form sample (for investigatory project)

SURVEY FORM
Did the researcher made use of a good quality pigweed in preparing lye?

________Yes
________No


If Yes:

Were the stems of the pigweed plant with axillary spines?
______Yes
______No


Were the leaves of the pigweed plant are glabrous, long-petioled, oblong to oblong ovate, or elliptic-lanceolate, 4 to 10 cm long, obtuse, and alternate?
______Yes
______No


Were the flowers of the pigweed plant very numerous, stalk less, green or greening white, about 1 mm long and born in dense?
______Yes
______No



Were the fruits utricle of the pigweed plant wrinkled andnearly as long as the sepals?
______Yes
______No

What is the color of the product?

______Very light
______Moderately light
______Average
______Moderately dark
______Very dark

What is the odor of the product?
______pleasant
______unpleasant
______odorless

Is the lye from pigweed plant effective as food additive?
______Yes
______No

Teoryang Pampanitikan

Teoryang Pampanitikan
Teoryang Klasismo/Klasisismo

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay maglahad ng mga pangyayaring payak, ukol sa pagkakaiba ng estado sa buhay ng dalawang nag-iibigan, karaniwan ang daloy ng mga pangyayari, matipid at piling-pili sa paggamit ng mga salita at laging nagtatapos nang may kaayusan.



Teoryang Humanismo

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita na ang tao ang sentro ng mundo; ay binibigyang-tuon ang kalakasan at mabubuting katangian ng tao gaya ng talino, talento atbp.



Teoryang Imahismo

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay gumamit ng mga imahen na higit na maghahayag sa mga damdamin, kaisipan, ideya, saloobin at iba pang nais na ibahagi ng may-adka na higit na madaling maunawaan kaysa gumamit lamang ng karaniwang salita. Sa halip na paglalarawan at tuwirang maglalahad ng mga imahen na layong ilantad ang totoong kaisipan ng pahayag sa loob ng panitikan.



Teoryang Realismo

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang mga karanasan at nasaksisan ng may-akda sa kanyang lipunan. Samakatuwid, ang panitikan ay hango sa totoong buhay ngunit hindi tuwirang totoo sapagkat isinaalang-alang ng may-akda ang kasiningan at pagkaefektibo ng kanyang sinulat.





Teoryang Feminismo

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay magpakilala ng mga kalakasan at kakayahang pambabae at iangat ang pagtingin ng lipunan sa mga kababaihan. Madaling matukoy kung ang isang panitikan ay feminismo sapagkat babae o sagisag babae ang pangunahing tauhan ay ipimayagpag ang mabubuti at magagandang katangian ng tauhan.



Teoryang Arkitaypal

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang mga mahahalagang bahagi ng akda sa pamamagitan ng mga simbolo. Ngunit hindi basta-basta masusuri ang mga simbolismo sa akda. Pinakamainam na alamin muna ang kabuuang konsepto at tema ng panitikan sapagkat ang mga simbolismong napapaloob sa akda ay magkaugnay sa isa’t isa. Ang lahat ng simbolismo ay naaayon sa tema at konseptong ipinapakilala ng may-akda sa mga mambabasa.



Teoryang Formalismo/Formalistiko

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay iparating sa mambabasa ang nais niyang ipaabot gamit ang kanyang tuwirang panitikan. Samakatuwid, kung ano ang sinasabi ng may-akda sa kanyang panitikan ang siyang nais niyang ipaabot sa mambabasa – walang labis at walang kulang. Walang simbolismo at hindi humihingi ng higit na malalimang pagsusuri’t pang-unawa.







Teoryang Saykolohikal/Sikolohikal

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipaliwanag sa pamamagitan ng pagpapakita ng mga salig (factor) sa pagbuo ng naturang behavior (pag-uugali, paniniwala, pananaw, pagkatao) sa isang tauhan sa kanyang akda. Ipinakikita sa akda na ang tao ay nagbabago o nagkakaroon ng panibagong behavior dahil may nag-udyok na mabago o mabuo ito.



Teoryang Eksistensyalismo

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita na may kalayaan ang tao na pumili o magdesisyon para sa kanyang sarili na siyang pinakasentro ng kanyang pananatili sa mundo (human existence).



Teoryang Romantisismo

v Ang layunin ng teoryang ito ay ipamalas ang iba’t ibang paraan ng tao o sumasagisag sa tao sa pag-aalay ng kanyang pag-ibig sa kapwa, bansa at mundong kinalakhan. Ipinakikita rin sa akda na gagawin at gagawin ng isang nilalang ang lahat upang maipaalam lamang ang kanyang pag-ibig sa tao o bayang napupusuan.



Teoryang Markismo/Marxismo

v Ang layunin ng teoryang ito ay ipakita na ang tao o sumasagisag sa tao ay may sariling kakayahan na umangat buhat sa pagdurusang dulot ng pang-ekononiyang kahirapan at suliraning panlipunan at pampulitika. Ang mga paraan ng pag-ahon mula sa kalugmukan sa adka ay nagsisilbing modelo para sa mga mambabasa.



Teoryang Sosyolohikal

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang kalagayan at suliraning panlipunan ng lipunang kinabibilangan ng may-akda. Naipakikita rito ang pamaraan ng mga tauhan sa pagsugpo sa suliranin o kalagayan ng lipunan na nagsisilbing gabay sa mga mambabasa sa magpuksa sa mga katulad na suliranin.



Teoryang Moralistiko

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ilahad ang iba’t ibang pamantayang sumusukat sa moralidad ng isang tao – ang pamantayan ng tama at mali. Inilalahad din nito ang mga pilosopiya o proposisyong nagsasaad sa pagkatama o kamalian ng isang kilos o ugali ayon sa pamantayang itinakda ng lipunan. Sa madaling sabi, ang moralidad ay napagkakasunduan ayon na rin sa kaantasan nito.



Teoryang Bayograpikal

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipamalas ang karanasan o kasagsagan sa buhay ng may-akda. Ipinahihiwatig sa mga akdang bayograpikal ang mga bahagi sa buhay ng may-akda na siya niyang pinakamasaya, pinakamahirap, pinakamalungkot at lahat ng mga “pinaka” na inaasahang magsilbing katuwang ng mambabasa sa kanyang karanasan sa mundo.



Teoryang Queer

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay iangat at pagpantayin sa paningin ng lipunan sa mga homosexual. Kung ang mga babae ay may feminismo ang mga homosexual naman ay queer.



Teoryang Historikal

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang karanasan ng isang lipi ng tao na siyang masasalamin sa kasaysayan au bahagi ng kanyang pagkahubog. Nais din nitong ipakita na ang kasaysayan ay bahagi ng buhay ng tao at ng mundo.



Teoryang Kultural

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakilala ang kultura ng may-akda sa mga hindi nakakaalam. Ibinabahagi ng may-akda ang mga kaugalian, paniniwala at tradisyon minana at ipasa sa mga sunod na salinlahi. Ipinakikita rin dito na bawat lipi ay natatangi.



Teoryang Feminismo-Markismo

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ilantad ang iba’t ibang paraan ng kababaihan sa pagtugon sa suliraning kanyang kinakaharap. Isang halimbawa nito ay ang pagkilala sa prostitusyon bilang tuwirang tugon sa suliraning dinaranas sa halip na ito’y kasamaan at suliranin ng lipunan.



Teoryang Dekonstraksyon

v Ang layunin ng panitikan ay ipakita ang iba’t ibang aspekto na bumubuo sa tao at mundo. Pinaniniwalaan kasi ng ilang mga pilosopo at manunulat na walang iisang pananaw ang nag-udyok sa may-akda na sumulat kundi ang pinaghalu-halong pananaw na ang nais iparating ay ang kabuuan ng pagtao at mundo.



Mga Sanggunian



Pagbasa ng Panitikan at Kulturang Popular: piling sanaysay, 1976-1996

Soledad S. Reyes

ADMU Press, Quezon City, Philippines, 1997



Panunuring Pampanitikan (Teorya at Pagsasanay)

Patronicio V. Villafuerte

Mutya Publishing House, Valenzuela City, Philippines, 2000



PLUMA III: Wika at panitikan para sa mataas na paaralan

Ailene G. Basa, Mary Grace C. del Mundo, Nestor S. Lontoc at Alona M. Dayag

Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., Quezon City, Philippines, 2004

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